Evaluating Biodiversity and Vulnerability

Identifying factors that lead to loss of diversity

Main five pressures on biodiversity are still present and even intensifying:

1. Habitat loss and degradation
2. Climate change
3. Excessive nutrients and other pollutants
4. Over-exploitation and unsustainable use of resources
5. Invasive alien species

There is something known as the Red List that shows the status of species in terms of their conservation status. You can see the list here.

It should be mentioned that biodiversity conservation is crucial. Biodiversity, be it genetic, habitat, or species, is one of the determining factors in an ecosystem's health. The above mentioned factors are putting pressures on the planet that it cannot absorb fast enough. Ecological footprints are exceeding the Earth's capacity to recover. All of this leads to a persistent loss in biodiversity that slowly reduces our ecosystems' resilience and compromises the resources on which we depend.

There are certain world trends that are occurring around the world:
- Habitats are declining.
- Abundance and distribution of species are declining.
- Change in status of threatened species.
- Threats in genetic diversity in domestic animals, cultivated plants, and fish species. This is due to interference with natural selection.
- Coverage of protected areas are increasing
- Marine Trophic Index has shown an increase, but has regional fluctuations.
- Ecosystems have become more fragmented.
- Water quality in aquatic ecosystems has been declining. Some areas have increased their water quality by dealing with point-source pollution.
- Nitrogen deposition has increased.
- The amount of invasive species has increased and are now a threat.
- Areas of forest, agricultural, and aquaculture ecosystems under sustainable management have increased, but there are several areas that still require more efforts.
- Humanity's Ecological Footprint is still rising.

Evaluating Contrasting Human Perceptions of the Issue of Global Warming

There are many different postures regarding the global warming phenomenon. Some state that global warming is a myth. Others do not deny it, but simply hold that the temperature rise is normal and is even beneficial to the Earth. Personally, I believe that there is enough scientific data to prove that the Earth's temperature is in fact rising. Also, regarding the point of view that it benefits our ecosystems, I believe it may be true in certain places. However, the changes in temperature are also harming other ecosystems that are just as important as the ones that are being benefited.

Another important issue that needs to be addressed when talking about global warming is the extinction and loss of biodiversity. Massive extinctions result from global warming, and the drastic changes in the environment can lead to loss of habitat which in turn limit the biodiversity in a given ecosystem.

I believe global warming is something that occurs naturally, but scientific and historic records clearly demonstrate that the rate at which the Earth is heating up is faster, and it is human activity that which is accelerating this process. I also hold that the planet is resilient enough to recover from the damages it suffers, but again, the damage is being done constantly and we are not giving the Earth enough time to absorb the pressures we are putting on it.

While I believe that global warming is a threat, I also consider that there are things that can be done. CO2 emissions are a major contributor to the temperature rise and while we cannot stop them completely, we could greatly reduce them. Corporations and governments should work at a large scale to reduce emissions, but also individuals and society as a whole should become more conscious and aware of the impact that each of our actions has on the planet. Only when we have reached true awareness will we be able to say that we are doing all we can to help the Earth.

Urban Pollution: Key Terms

Photochemical Smog: It is the product of several chemical reactions. Main components are nitrogen oxide and ozone after the reaction caused by UV light. Hydrocarbon free radicals found in smog can form aldehydes and peroxyacetylnitrate (PAN). Common in large cities.
PAN in photochemical smog can irritate the eyes.
Ozone: causes breathing difficulties, headaches, and fatigue.

Nitrogen Dioxide can be split into nitrogen monoxide and a free oxygen molecule that is then available to form ozone.
Nitric oxide can remove ozone.
When the ratio of NO2 to NO is greater than 3, the formation of ozone is the dominant reaction. If the ratio is less than 0.3, then the nitric oxide destroys oxygen.


Peroxyacetylnitrate: Products of the reaction between nitrogen dioxide, oxygen and hydrocarbons.

Catalytic Converters: These are used to reduce the carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxide emissions. It is made up of either platinum or a combination of platinum and rhodium.
Platinum catalyses the reaction of unburt hydrocarbon and oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and water.
The rhodium catalyses the reaction of carbon monoxide and nitric oxide to form carbon dioxide and nitrogen gas.

Reduction of NO to N2 must proceed more quickly than the oxidation of carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide or else all the carbon monoxide will be oxidized to carbon dioxide before it can be used to reduce the nitric oxide.

Acid deposition: The effect that acid rain has on ecosystems. The effects may not be immediately seen, but the restoration process takes a very long time.

Acid rain in soil - Each H+ replaces key nutrients. Hydrogen ions replace potassium or calcium ions. Plants begin to suffer due to scarce nutrients.

Heavy Metals

Article on Heavy Metals in Landfills by the New Jersey Harbor Estuary Program. Click here.

Pollution Management Strategies

Key Questions
1. What challenges does each type of pollution present?
2. Why?
3. What can be or is being done?

Three level model
-Human activity producing pollutants
+Altering human activity through education, incentives, and penalties to promote:
*Development of alternative technology
*Adoption of alternative lifestyles
*Reducing, reusing, recycling

-Release of pollutants into environment
+ Regulating and reducing point of emissions
*Standards
*Measures to extract pollutants from emissions

-Long-term impact of pollutants on ecosystem
+ Cleaning up pollutants and restoring ecosystems
*Extracting and removing pollutants from ecosystem
*Replanting and restocking animal populations

How to Assess Pollution

Notes Jan. 18 (cont. from yesterday)

Direct Methods
-In situ (field work)

• It is reliable
• It gives straightforward data.
• Measures directly in the source.
  
• Can have technical difficulties (Instruments: costly or not portable)

- Ex Situ (lab work)

• Use a wider variety of methods and instruments
• More flexible (Test more variables, have more repetitions)
• Samples are not fresh. The time after the sample was extracted may affect it and alter the results.

Direct measurements can assess
*Concentration of gases
*Particulate matter
*pH
*Dissolved oxygen in water
*Biomass content
*Salts
*Conductivity
*Turbidity
*Temperature
*Density

Indirect measurement is done through
*BOD
*Indicator species
*Biodiversity
*Spectroscopy
*Chromatography

Pollution Management

Detection and monitoring of pollution can be done directly or indirectly

Directly: Measuring the concentration of pollutants

• Acidity of rain
• Amount of gases in atmosphere or emissions
• Soil pH
• Concentration of nitrates, phosphates, sulfates in soil and water
• Amount of organic matter in soil and water
• Amount of bacteria
• Concentration of (heavy) metals
• BOD (biochemical oxygen demand: the amount of oxygen used by microorganisms to break down organic matter in water): used to determine the pollution of water. The greater the BOD, the more pollution.
  

Indirectly

• Absence or presence of indicator species
• 
  

Air Pollution

Notes Jan. 14

Atmosphere levels
Troposphere
Stratosphere: Ozone layer located here.
Mesosphere
Thermosphere

Pollution concentrate in the troposphere. Climate change is due to the change on temperature in the troposphere.
Greenhouse gases: CFCs, Methane, carbon dioxide.

Primary pollutant: come directly from specific sources such as volcanoes or dust storms. Most hydrocarbons, most suspended particles. Human primary pollutants come from vehicles, factories and industrial activities, and houses. Examples: CO, CO2, SO2, NO, NO2.

Secondary pollutants: these pollutants generate from primary pollutants due to chemical activities in the atmosphere or water. Most of these reactions are enabled by sunlight. Photochemical smog and ozone are examples of secondary pollutants. Examples: SO3, HNO3, H2SO4, O3, nitric and sulfuric ions.

Indoor pollution
Pollution that builds up in houses and buildings can be is known as indoor pollution. It can be divided into several areas:
Bedrooms - Areas of sleep: Dust mites, bacteria and viruses. Can be reduced through good ventilation. Special mattresses and linen as well as good hygiene help reduce bedroom pollutants.
Bathroom - Areas of hygiene: Plumbing leaks, cleaning supplies, heavy metals found in the plumbing, carpeting and flooring, bacteria and viruses, dampness, garbage.
Kitchen - Areas of cooking: Cooking smoke, gas appliances, household cleaning agents, garbage, plumbing leaks.
Garage and Attic - Areas of storage: Storage of chemicals, old things release pollutants. To reduce this, do not store potentially polluting stuff and keeping the area well ventilated.
Living rooms: Tobacco, incense, and environment fresheners, carpets and furniture store pollen, dust and debris. Choose furniture that is not prone to store pollutants (too many cushions, excessive fluff, etc.)
Yards: Pesticides, herbicides, naturally produce pollen and dust. To promote a more eco-friendly yard, the plants in the house must be regional plants that do not need exceptional care.

To be continued...

Major Pollutants

Pollutant	Causes and Sources	Effects
Carbon monoxide	Forms during the incomplete combustion of carbon-containing materials. Motor-vehicles, burning and forest and grasslands, inefficient stoves, open fires	CO reacts with hemoglobin, reducing blood's ability to transport oxygen. Can also cause headaches, nausea, drowsiness.
Carbon dioxide	A result of the carbon cycle, the burning of fossil fuels, and industrial processes	Can alter the pH of water bodies and because of excessive quantities, it is contributing to the greenhouse effect. In the human body, excessive CO2 can cause asphyxiation and kidney damage.
Nitrogen oxides and nitric acid	Combustion of fossil fuels. Motor vehicles are a major contributor. Nitric acid can come from sewage and fertilizers.	Nitrogen oxides harm airways and can lead to respiratory diseases. It also contributes to the formation of ozone. Nitric acid leads to acid rain.
Sulfur dioxide and sulfuric acid	Burning of coal and oil, and is also a byproduct of metal and industrial processes.	Both cause acid rain wich results in acidified soils and bodies of water. Health effects include respiratory and cardiovascular problems
Suspended Particulate Matter	Motor vehicles, coal-burning, fireplaces, power plants.	Causes pulmonary problems such as asthma and decreased lung function. In the environment, it reduces visibility.
Ozone	Formed by the reaction of VOCs and nitrogen oxides.	Causes shortness of breath, wheezing and coughing, but can lead to severe lung problems such as reduced function and irritation.
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)	Motor vehicles, chemical plants, refineries, factories.	Eye, nose, and throat irritation, headaches, dizziness.
Radon	Produced by the decay of uranium in soil and water.	Lung cancer.

Sources of Pollution per Type

Air
Point source: Ammonia is a pollutant that is commonly released because of industrial processes.

Non-point source: Nitrogen oxides are pollutants that are released into the air due to the combustion of fossil fuels and other human activities such as cars and other vehicles, and agricultural sources.

Water
Point source:
Wastewater treatment plants are a source of pollutants ranging from organic nutrients to chemical agents. This is considered a point source pollutant because the plants have identifiable discharge pipes.

Non-point source:

1. Excess nutrients that can come from industrial or agricultural runoff or even animal wastes and soil gathered along a water's path.
2. Chemical contaminants that enter a body of water through urban runoff and contaminated stormwater.
   

Soil
Point source: Industrial wastes and agricultural pesticides are a source of contaminants that release chemicals into the soil, compromising its health.
Non-point source: Runoff can also affect soil because contaminated groundwater seeps into it. If the runoff carries excessive nutrients, these could also become soil pollutants.


Notes
It can be seen in this comparison that when talking about waste and pollution management, each case need to be considered on an individual basis because a pollutant can come from a non-point source or a point source.

Pollution and Wastes

Notes Jan. 12, 2011

Waste is any unwanted byproduct of a certain activity, but it is not considered pollution when its levels surpass what nature can handle.
A pollutant is any waste in excessive amounts.

Every living thing produces waste, but even the waste from other species could turn into pollution when its levels skyrocket. Example: an uncleaned aquarium, algal blooms.

When there is an uncontrolled growth of population, the amount of wastes produced by the organisms becomes so much that it is said the it pollutes the ecosystem. Pollution limits growth, harms health, or has otherwise negative effects.
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What is pollution?
The presence of a waste or an agent in quantities higher than what the environment can naturally handle.

Every waste or agent has different tolerance levels. Some wastes are considered pollutants just by the fact of being produced, i.e. chemicals.The agents and wastes that are considered pollutant the instant they are produced are those that are not naturally present in an environment.

Types of pollution

• Point source: Pollutants that can be tracked to a particular source.
• Non-point source: Pollutants for which a clear source cannot be precisely identified.

Pollution is constantly present due to human activity. Pollution management is a term that has been present since the Industrial Revolution, but it was not until the 20th century when the concept started becoming important. During the time of the Industrial Revolution, the people did not consider that the wastes produced by the industrial processes would become a major pollutant that would compromise the health of different ecosystems. This era was characterized by unprecedented and uncontrolled development.

Policies and their Effect on Human Population

The objective of this activity is to discuss how international and national development policies and cultural influences can affect human population development and growth.

The following outline presents a comparison between the countries of Australia and United Kingdom in terms of sustainability policies and the effect on their respective populations.

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Australia
Population facts

• Ageing population (Baby boomers are growing old)
• High levels of immigration into the country
• Consistent growth, but uneven across the different regions
• Great majority of population lives in urbanized areas

Aims

• Economic stability
• Address labor shortages
• Prepare accordingly for when the population pyramid finally inverts
• Sustainability across the country
• Improve connections between regions
• Improve infrastructure
• Increase food production without compromising the environment
  

Policies

• Immigrants on work visas will face a much more simplified process.
• Infrastructure development projects will focus on those areas that present the most growth.
• Economic policies are working to strengthen connections with international companies.
• Agricultural policies are working to increase food production, but limiting the amount of additional resources that are used. (Target: Low input, high yield)
• Working to relocate people in order to limit the growth of urbanized areas so as to protect biodiversity and avoid the habitat degradation and loss.

United Kingdom
Population facts

• Aging population (Baby boomers)
• Growing population
• Population divided by regions
• There is a certain level of immigration

Aims

• Control population growth
• Manage population segments before the population pyramid inverts
• Protect natural resources
• Achieve high employment levels
  
• Sustainability through education
  

Policies

• Government support will help provide jobs and training.
• Prevent emigration by creating communities where people will want to live and work.
• Provide family planning services
• Work toward social inclusion of all citizens
• Focusing on education and sustainability through educating the population
• Work together with international organization to determine sustainability policies
• Health care available to increase the population's well-being.
  

Conclusions
It can be seen in both cases, the policies are made according to the population conditions. This means that policies issued are based on the needs identified in a specific population. At the same time, the policies have an effect on the people, so it goes both ways. For example, Australia has a high immigration rate and the growth of its own population is constant but not enough to cause significant problems. This is why Australia focuses on taking advantage of immigration to target labor shortages which will become an increasing problem as the population ages. United Kingdom also has an aging population, but it is focusing more on retaining its current population and training them to address the labor shortages.

Both countries are focusing on achieving sustainability, but each of the policies are made considering the culture, geography, and needs of each country's population.

New Year, New Activities

This post marks the beginning of Environmental Systems and Societies III, the final round of this IB course.